1.6.1 General waste

1.6.1(1)
General waste ‘does not pose an immediate hazard or threat to health or to the environment’ ⁹ and includes the following waste flows:

• domestic waste
• construction and demolition waste
• business waste
• inert waste

1.6.1(2)
The composition of general waste varies considerably between households, business and industry, with lower income households in general generating waste with a lower level of recyclable material. The proportion of recyclable and compostable materials in the general waste stream varies between 50% and 80%.

1.6.1(3)
Although current data on waste flows is incomplete, DEA’s figures for the 2006/7 financial year indicate that 24,115,402 tons of general waste was disposed of in landfills during that year. This figure will increase as waste services are extended, unless there is a significant increase in the recycling rate and greater diversion of waste from landfill through waste to energy recovery, treatment and reuse programs.

1.6.1(4)
The larger, comparatively well-resourced metropolitan municipalities are experiencing fiscal pressures in maintaining existing levels of waste management services and landfill capacity, while many smaller municipalities face more severe capacity problems. In general, waste services and landfill management charges are underpriced, and a large proportion of municipal waste divisions are operating at a loss. By making alternative waste management options relatively expensive, under-pricing waste service removes important incentives for waste minimisation and encourages higher levels of disposal to landfill.

1.6.1(5)
Generally, public awareness of waste related issues is low in South Africa and the permissive attitude towards littering increases waste collection costs. Furthermore, the lack of opportunity for consumers to correctly dispose of wastes with special disposal requirements, such as eWaste, batteries and Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFLs) affects the composition of the domestic waste stream. The absence of consumer pressure has contributed to the slow response to this problem by industry and the retail sector in the form of Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) and product stewardship measures, with some notable exceptions.

1.6.1(6)
General wastes that present particular strategic challenges include:

• Domestic waste: Currently about 40% of the population receive inadequate or no domestic waste services. The Packaging Council of South Africa (PACSA) estimates that approximately 12 % of the domestic waste stream derives from packaging¹⁰. This figures compares favourably with international estimates. The composition of the domestic waste stream directed to landfill varies considerably across different locations based on a variety of factors, including income and opportunities for recycling. Internationally, this waste stream is subject to extended producer responsibility programs, with industry being required to fund separation and collection of recyclable paper and packaging at source.
• Tyres: Many landfills do not currently accept tyres since they cannot be compacted and require significant airspace relative to their weight. As a consequence, they are often illegally burnt on open land to recover steel for recycling, presenting a health hazard and leaving environmentally damaging residues in soil. In 2009, regulations were promulgated requiring tyre producers and importers to develop integrated industry waste plans that must indicate how waste management measures for waste tyres will be managed and funded.
• Construction and demolition waste: Although construction and demolition waste does not consist primarily of hazardous waste, it needs to be diverted from general landfill sites due to airspace constraints. It is a mixed waste source that requires separation into component parts for the purposes of recycling, and typically includes low levels of hazardous wastes, particularly legacy building materials such as asbestos which can present a significant health risk when disposed of or inappropriately reused.
• Mining waste: The mining industry contributes more waste to the national total than any other sector, and some mining waste has significant environmental impacts. These impacts are addressed in terms of environmental management plans developed by the industry and approved by the Department of Mineral Resources. Environmental regulation of the mining industry has traditionally resorted under this department, but there is a process underway to shift this environmental function to DEA. These shifts have resulted in some confusion regarding the regulatory framework that pertains to the environmental impact of mining and the exact scope of the application of the Waste Act.
• High Saline waste: This waste is produced during the treatment of waste through osmosis and crystalline evaporation, as well as desalination of water. It results in a saline leachate when mixed with other wastes, and for this reason requires specialised disposal procedures. As waste treatment is implemented more widely as part of the hierarchy of waste management measures, and as desalination becomes more important to the supply of water, this waste stream will require special attention.

Footnotes:

⁹South Africa. 2008. National Environmental Management Waste Act, No.59 of 2008. Pretoria: Government Printer. [Laws.]

¹⁰Marthinusen, Andrew. 2007. Sustainability and Packaging. [Online]. Available: http://www.pacsa.co.za/doc/IPSA%20WC%20Presentation%20Sept%202007.ppt [9 February 2010]

1.6.2 Hazardous and industrial waste

1.6.2(1)
Scientific understanding of the potential threats to the environment posed by a wide range of substances used in industrial processes and in general domestic use is constantly evolving, creating a need for new standards for waste management. The current classification system for hazardous waste is set out in the DWA Minimum Requirements for the Handling, Classification and Disposal of Hazardous Wastes and is undergoing review in light of the new regulatory framework for waste management provided by the Waste Act.

1.6.2(2)
In 2007, a survey by DEAT of hazardous waste management companies active in four provinces estimated that 710,500 tons of hazardous waste was disposed of at commercial hazardous waste sites in that year. This figure does not include slag and large quantities of hazardous waste such as gypsum and powerstation ash that are disposed of onsite by the producer, and which constitute the largest portion of hazardous waste. In general, on-site disposal needs to be better regulated and, in time, phased out. In comparison to previous data from 1997, this indicated a significant net increase in the volume of hazardous waste, despite the absence of data from the provinces in the 2007 survey.

1.6.2(3)
Currently, the extent of reuse, recovery and recycling of hazardous wastes is negatively influenced by the costs of transporting waste to the limited number of facilities that are capable of treating, processing and recycling hazardous wastes.

1.6.2(4)
At present both liquid and solid waste, including organic wastes, are disposed of in landfills. This significantly increases the risk of environmental pollution from leaching and makes the reuse or recycling of these wastes impossible. In many countries co-disposal of liquid and solid waste and disposal to landfill of organic waste are outlawed, and the phasing out of these practices is a priority for improving hazardous waste management.

1.6.2(5)
Waste streams that include hazardous components and that present particular strategic challenges include:

• Health care waste: Health care waste consists of both. health care risk waste (HCRW), which comprises the hazardous fraction of the waste stream and health care general waste, which is non-hazardous. HCRW is generated in varying quantities at healthcare facilities and because of its pathogenic characteristics needs to be treated prior to disposal. Systems to support the proper segregation of HCRWwaste are not always in place in hospital wards and clinics. However, significant attention has been paid to the management of this waste stream and the Gauteng HCRW project has developed and piloted a segregation system for HCRW in the urban context. In 2003 DEA developed and piloted HCRW  segregation and management measures in rural settings. Despite these efforts, shortfalls in the availability of compliant HCRW treatment options are still experienced.
• eWaste: Consisting of electrical and electronic waste (WEE), eWaste is a relatively new waste category () for which there is currently a lack of formal disposal mechanisms. Due to the many hazardous components and materials used in the manufacture of electronic goods, including mercury, brominated flame retardants, and cadmium, tis is considered a hazardous waste stream. Used electrical goods are often imported into the country as donations – but in some cases, what is being imported is effectively WEE. There is significant job creation potential in the recycling of eWaste, and several initiatives have and are being set up. The hazardous nature of this waste stream and the small margins of profit generated must be carefully considered when encouraging the recycling of WEE.
• Batteries: Approximately 2,500 tons of batteries are disposed of in general landfill sites annually. Although some alkaline batteries can be disposed of as domestic waste, rechargeable batteries and silver oxide batteries can contain heavy metals such as mercury and cadmium which are classified as hazardous substances and may present an environmental threat when disposed of to landfill. Lead-acid batteries used in cars are considered a hazardous waste. There is an established recycling industry for certain types of batteries (e.g. lead-acid batteries used in cars).
• Fluorescent Lamps: Fluorescent lamps contain a small amount of mercury which is used in the illumination process. Mercury is a neurotoxin that can be harmful in even small amounts. The promotion of compact fuorescent lamps (CFLs) by government and Eskom as an energy saving measure has significantly increased the numbers of CFLs that require disposal when expired. Although Fluorescent lamps can be successfully recycled and the mercury recovered, no such facilities are currently available in the country.
• Power Station Waste: Large amounts of fly ash are generated by coal-powered power stations and coal to liquid fuel plants. The disposal of this ash to land sterilises vast tracts of predominately agricultural land and causes significant air pollution from ash entering the atmosphere. Although this has the potential for reuse in brick making, as a cement extender, and as aggregate in roads, levels of reuse are significantly lower than the amounts of waste generated.
• Pesticide Waste: Due to their toxicity, potential to pollute and threat to human health, pesticide wastes are extremely hazardous and must be transported, treated and disposed of accordingly. These pesticides can contain persistent organic pollutants (POPs), which accumulate in the food chain and are the subject of international obligations in terms of the Stockholm Convention. South Africa was identified as a country to receive assistance with the collection and disposal of obsolete pesticide waste through the Africa Stock Piles program.
• Oil: A wide range of potentially hazardous compounds occur in used oil, including poly-aromatic hydrocarbons that have carcinogenic and mutagenic properties. Because of its slow rate of decomposition, spilled oil accumulates in the environment causing soil and water pollution. Industry, through the ROSE Foundation and National Oil Recycling Association of South Africa (NORA-SA) provide a good example of successful self-regulation. Since the foundation’s inception in April 1994, more than 400-million litres of used oil have been collected, and currently about 40% of used oil is recovered for reuse and recycling.
• Sewage Sludge: The treatment of sewage sludge is regulated as a concurrent mandate between Department of Water Affairs (DWA) and DEA. The widespread disposal of industrial effluent via sewage treatment works results in contamination of sewage sludge with hazardous chemicals, thereby posing particular challenges for its disposal. Uncontaminated sewage sludge has a variety of commercial uses and can be recycled. Nevertheless, a high proportion of sewage sludge continues to be disposed into landfills. Failures in the monitoring and management of sewage sludge have significant health consequence. Sewage sludge that is contaminated by heavy metals from industrial effluent can severely contaminate agricultural land to which it is applied.

   

1.6.3 Waste treatment

1.6.3(1)
Due to a variety of factors, waste treatment technologies have not been effectively or widely deployed in the country. A vocal lobby opposed to thermal processing exists in the country and the performance of some existing treatment facilities has been poor. Furthermore, the lack of full cost accounting of landfill management has made treatment seem comparatively expensive and resulted in disposal to landfill becoming the preferred waste management option.

1.6.3(2)
This situation is not sustainable, and the NWMS promotes treatment of waste. Some of the required steps have already been taken. Air Quality standards that apply to thermal treatment processes have been developed. Specific policy in relation to thermal treatment has been developed to provide a degree of certainty to potential entrants into the sector. Through the waste classification system, provisions to divert waste from landfill will be introduced.
 

1.6.4 Waste disposal

1.6.4(1)
The lack of adequate, compliant landfills and hazardous waste management facilities is a cross-cutting strategic priority that impacts on the safe disposal of all waste streams. Although more than 2000 waste handling facilities are estimated to exist¹¹, there are currently significant backlogs in permitting, and some municipalities have not even begun the process of permitting waste facilities. Furthermore, many permitted landfills fail to achieve compliance with the conditions of their permits.  Currently only four of the nine provinces have hazardous waste facilities.

1.6.4(2)
There is an undersupply of landfill airspace, and the currently available airspace is being rapidly depleted. This is compounded by the low levels of waste minimization and reuse, recovery and recycling. Separating, recycling, and reducing waste through treatment poses a cross-cutting challenge that will inform the management of all waste flows but is of particular significance for general and domestic waste.

Footnotes:

¹¹DEAT (2007), Assessment of the Status of Waste Service Delivery and capacity at Local Government level.  Directorate:  General Waste Management, August 2007, Draft 3.